Production Process

The process of making an antiphonal was a long and dedicated one that required time and commitment.^[1] In the sixteenth century, antiphonaries were usually made from sheepskin or goatskin because they could withstand humidity and temperature changes much better than paper; this could be attributed to how this particular antiphonal has lasted remarkably well over the centuries.^[2] Once the skins have undergone the process of removing the fat of the skin and soaking it in water, they are stretched onto wooden frames to then scrape off the remaining hairs, which can be felt on the outside page of this antiphonary.^[3]  Once dried, the skins were polished and made smooth by using a pumice stone, or another type of volcanic rock.^[4] After they were measured and ruled, the skins underwent a process called pricking, where tiny holes were made in the margins of the antiphonal to serve as a ruling guide.^[5] The outside of the vellum, called the recto, is darker and small hairs can be felt; on the inside of the vellum, the parchment is lighter and is called the verso.^[6] This particular antiphonal has holes on the inner fold, which indicate that it was part of a larger book.

The center fold having stitched holes and folded curves is further indication that this parchment was a part of a larger book. This also means that there were a few pieces of parchment which belonged to the inner part of this bifolium, indicating that the antiphonal was an inner set of songs in a larger book.

These antiphonaries were more than hymnbooks produced in mass production seen in many church services today; they were pieces of art, and if examined and analyzed, could reveal regional influences and customs.^[7]  For example the Salzinnes Antiphonal, made in present-day Belgium, has beautiful illumination around the borders, with pictures of nuns who lived in the abbey at the time of its production.  This example served as a family record that could be used to identify where and when the nuns lived.  Many illuminations “portray the coats-of-arms of their patrons, showing kneeling in prayer, common and well-documented practice by patrons beyond the region.”^[8]  These illustrations bring the lifestyle of patrons and nuns to life. The quality and worth of the antiphonaries was subject to the amount of patronage, or financial support for the production process.^[9]  Because of their financial support, patrons would be seen in many of the illuminations. 

Scribes, under the direction of their supervisor, hand-copied the text and worked meticulously to perfect the design to show the quality of the antiphonal.^[10]  The USU Antiphonal Bifolium has cursive and flourished lettering, most likely written with a quill, and would have taken much time, reflecting its valued status.^[11] The scribes were also the illuminators and were primarily responsible for embellishing the text, similar to the illustrators in books we read today, who bring life, color, meaning, and artistry to the text.  Like illustrators, illuminators collaborated with other scribes and artists as they traveled through cities, developing new ideas and searching for work.^[12]  On this Antiphonal, you will notice on each page there is at least one large letter with extravagant decorations—some with added coloring—hand painted by an illuminator to beautify it.  In comparison to the Salzinnes Antiphonal and many others in the fifteenth and sixteenth century, the USU Antiphonal is quite simple when looking at the illumination, yet it still remains of great value.

The text of this Antiphonal is easy to read, in comparison to many gothic styled writings that had swirls and elongated lettering. This style was most likely an example of humanistic display script, found in many books of hours. The text of many antiphonals in the sixteenth century, including the Salzinnes Antiphonal, were more elongated, and had swirls similar to gothic architecture.^[13] Although, this antiphonal was from the sixteenth century and written in a gothic style, it is a combination of “very fine diagonal upstrokes and weighted down strokes” and “neat, rounded clear forms of the rediscovered Caroline minuscule.” ^[14]